A child’s ability to find happiness in everyday life may begin taking shape long before adolescence. From a parent’s encouraging words to expressions of warmth and affection, early childhood experiences could influence how the brain responds to life’s positive moments. New research from the University of Notre Dame suggests that positive parenting during the preschool years may help children develop a stronger capacity for experiencing joy, potentially supporting better mental health as they grow older.

Published in Communications Psychology, the study found that parenting behaviours observed when children were just three years old were associated with how their brains responded to rewards throughout adolescence. The findings offer new insights into how early family experiences may influence emotional development and vulnerability to mental health problems, including depression.

Led by psychologist Kaylin Hill, an assistant professor at Notre Dame, the research followed 465 children and their parents over 15 years. Researchers initially observed interactions between parents and their three-year-olds, recording positive behaviours such as warmth, encouragement and support, alongside negative behaviours including harshness, criticism and excessive interference.

As the children grew older, researchers assessed their brain activity at ages nine, 12, 15 and 18 using electroencephalography (EEG). Participants played a guessing game involving monetary rewards, allowing scientists to measure how strongly their brains responded to winning compared with losing. These responses provided an indication of how the brain processes rewarding experiences.

The results revealed a notable pattern: children who experienced more positive and less negative parenting at age three tended to show stronger brain responses to rewards throughout adolescence. Conversely, children exposed to harsher or more intrusive parenting generally demonstrated weaker responses, suggesting differences in how they processed pleasurable experiences.

This ability to respond to rewards plays an important role in emotional well-being. Whether enjoying friendships, celebrating achievements or participating in favourite activities, the brain’s reward system helps people experience excitement, satisfaction and pleasure. Reduced responsiveness to positive experiences has been linked to depression and other mental health difficulties.

“What we saw is that the more positive, and less negative, parenting behaviors we observed at age 3, the larger the brain’s reward response seemed to be for individuals across adolescence,” Hill explained. The findings suggest that everyday parenting interactions may help shape the developing brain’s sensitivity to positive experiences.

The implications could be particularly important for preventing mental health problems. With many psychiatric conditions emerging during adolescence and early adulthood, identifying early influences on emotional development may create opportunities for intervention. Hill believes supporting parents, potentially even before childbirth, could help strengthen children’s emotional resilience and reduce future mental health risks.

Although the observational study cannot establish that parenting behaviours directly cause changes in brain development or prevent depression, it highlights a potentially modifiable influence on mental health. Unlike genetic risk factors, parenting practices can be strengthened through education and support. For families, the message is encouraging: everyday moments of kindness, praise and emotional connection may contribute to children’s capacity to experience happiness well into adulthood.

More information: Kaylin Hill et al, Early parenting is associated with the development of neural reward responsiveness from childhood through adolescence, Communications Psychology. DOI: 10.1038/s44271-026-00507-7

Journal information: Communications Psychology Provided by University of Notre Dame